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HISTORY OF THE BATTERY. BATTERY

The first electric battery was given to known to the world by Volta in 1800, in a letter sent to President Royal Society of London. It was a series of pairs of discs (stacked) of zinc and copper (also silver), separated from each other by pieces of cardboard or felt impregnated with water or brine, which measured about 3 cm in diameter. When you set a unit of measure for the potential difference, the volt (just in honor of Volta) might know that each of these elements provides a voltage of 0.75 V or so, but none of these concepts was available then. His stack connected in series to increase voltage allowed at will, another discovery of Volta. The invention was an absolute novelty and enjoyed immediate success and well-deserved, and that initiated the electric age we currently live, allowing precise experimental study of electricity, surpassing the huge limitations that had to do electrostatic generators, the only previously available. Another provision also used and described by Volta to the device consisted of a series of glasses of liquid (side by side, on drums), in which they dipped the strips of metal, a metal connecting externally with another.
immediately began to get around Europe and America many tests with various liquids, metals and regulations, trying to improve the characteristics of the original device, which rarely achieved, but which resulted in a myriad of different types of batteries, of which no memory has been more that of the more remarkable.
The Daniell cell, which was released in 1836 and which have been widely used after certain design variations, consists of a zinc electrode immersed in a zinc sulfate solution and a copper electrode immersed in a concentrated solution of sulphate copper. Both electrolytes are separated by a porous wall to avoid direct reaction. In this situation the tension of the dissolution of zinc is greater than the pressure of Zn + + ions and the electrode dissolves, releasing Zn + + and being negatively charged, a process in which electrons are released and that is called oxidation. In the copper sulfate solution, due to its high concentration of Cu + +, Cu is deposited on the metal electrode which is thereby positively charged through a process called reduction, which involves the incorporation of electrons. This battery has a potential difference of between 1.07 and 1.14 V between the electrodes. Its great advantage over others of his time was the constancy of the voltage generated due to elaborate arrangement that facilitates the depolarization, and the reserve of electrolyte, which helps keep your concentration for longer.
Battery Grove (1839) used as depolarizer acid Nitric NO3H. Its electromotive force is from 1.9 to 2.0 V Originally used platinum for the anode, but Cooper and Bunsen then replaced it with coal, the zinc cathode was treated with mercury. It was prized for its stability and greater energy, despite the great inconvenience posed by the release of corrosive fumes. Grove himself in the same year and developed a battery that produces electricity through the recombination of hydrogen and oxygen, which is the precedent of the contemporary genre known as fuel cells.
Leclanché Battery (1868) uses a solution of ammonium chloride is immersed in the zinc electrodes and coal, the latter surrounded by a paste of manganese dioxide and carbon dust and depolarizing. Provides a voltage of 1.5 V and its main advantage is that it stores well, because zinc is not attacked only when power is removed the item.
This type of battery was the basis for the important advance was the so-called dry stack, which owns almost all used today. The types so far described were referred to as wet as they contained liquid, which not only made transport problem, but they used to deliver hazardous gases and unpleasant odors. Dry batteries, however, consisted of a cylindrical vessel zinc, which was negative, filled with an electrolytic paste and a carbon rod in the center (positive electrode), all sealed to prevent leaks. Previously there had been another type of dry cells, such as the Zamboni (1812), but were purely experimental devices that do not provide any useful current. The dryness is relative, firstly because strictly dry element would not provide any electricity, so that what is inside the battery is a gel or paste, as moisture makes every effort to conserve resources, but also because use and over time tend to corrode the contender, so that the battery may shed part of its electrolyte abroad, where you can attack other metals. For this reason it is recommended to remove them when not in use for a long time or when they have worked hard. This problem is highly attenuated in the products of the late twentieth century through the use of stainless steel containers, but still occurs sometimes.
important in another sense have been the standard battery, for calibration purposes and determination of units, and battery Clark (1870), zinc and mercury, whose voltage was 1.457 V, and the stack Weston (1891), of cadmium and mercury, 1.018 V. These tensions are measured in vacuum, ie without any external load connected, and a constant temperature 20 ° C.

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: DURATION. BATTERY

Ideally internal chemical reactions occur not only when the battery is in service, but the reality is that batteries deteriorate by the mere passage of time, although not used because the electrodes are attacked in what is known as local action. It may be noted that a battery loses about 6 mV per month of storage that strongly influence this temperature. Currently this is not a serious problem because, given the enormous consumer about current rates, which are offered in the trade are made recently. Some manufacturers have started to print on the packaging expiration date of the product, which is a commendable practice.

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: VOLTAGE. BATTERY

voltage, voltage or potential difference produced by electrochemical element is determined entirely by the nature of the substances on the electrodes and electrolyte and its concentration. Walther Nernst was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1920 for having developed and demonstrated quantitatively the laws governing this phenomenon. Linking elements in series to multiply this basic tension as desired.
purely electrical properties of a cell is represented by the attached model. In its simplest form consists of a perfect voltage source, ie with zero internal resistance-in series with a resistor representing the internal resistance. The condenser of the most complex version is enormous and its load simulates the discharge of the battery. Furthermore between terminals also appears a capacitance, which is not usually important in current applications. Symbol


a stack (left) electric model (center), more elaborate model (right).
After setting the voltage, Ohm's law determines the current through the load and consequently the work can be done, provided of course that is within the scope of the stack, which is not infinite, coming mainly limited by the size of the electrodes, which determines the outer size of the entire stack, and by their separation. These physical constraints are represented in the model of generator internal resistance why would the ideal current generator, ie one that could provide an endless stream to the predetermined voltage. As
cell is spent, its internal resistance increases, causing tension on the burden will diminish, until it is insufficient for the purposes intended, at which time it must be replaced. To una idea, una pila nueva de las ordinarias de 1,5 V tiene una resistencia interna de unos 0,35 Ω, mientras que una vez agotada puede tener varios. Esta es la razón de que la mera medición de la tensión con un voltímetro no sirva para indicar el estado de una pila; en circuito abierto incluso una pila gastada puede indicar 1,4 V, dada la carga insignificante que representa la resistencia de entrada del voltímetro, pero, si la medición se hace con la carga que habitualmente soporte, la lectura bajará a 1,0 V o menos, momento en que esa pila ha dejado de tener utilidad. Las actuales pilas alcalinas tienen una curva de descarga más suave que las previas de carbón; su resistencia interna aumenta proporcionalmente más slowly.
When you need a higher current than it can supply a single item, with its stress on the proper change, you can add other elements in the call connection in parallel, ie, connecting the positive of them all, first , and negative, on the other. This type of connection has the disadvantage that if an item fails before their peers, or short-circuited, inevitably drag in its fall to everyone else.

Like all chemical reactions that occur within a cell are sensitive to temperature, accelerating normally when it increases, thus resulting in a small increase in tension. More importantly for the fall, because when you reach the freezing many batteries may stop working or doing badly, which usually warn manufacturers. In return, if the batteries are stored refrigerated, will last in good condition.

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: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION. BATTERY

Although the appearance of each of these cells is simple, the explanation of its operation is far from be and led to a great scientific activity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and various theories.
batteries are basically two metal electrodes immersed in a liquid, solid or paste which is called electrolyte. The electrolyte is a conductor of ions.
When the electrodes react with the electrolyte, one electrode (the anode) will produce electrons (oxidation), and the other (cathode) there is an absence of electrons (reduction). When the excess electrons from the anode to the cathode pass through an external conductor to the battery produces an electric current.
As seen in the background is an oxidation reaction and a reduction to occur simultaneously.

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. Digital electronics

An electric battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy transition through a chemical process, after which it goes out of business and have to renew their constituents, since these features are altered during treatment. It is a primary generator. This energy is accessible by two battery terminals is called poles, electrodes, or terminals. One is the negative or anode and the other is the positive pole or cathode.
See also: battery electric battery
volta in Argentina is a common stack. In Castilian has become customary to call it that, while the device or rechargeable battery, battery has been called. Both battery and battery are terms from the early days electricity, in which several cells or cells in the first case, one above the other, "stacked", and the second attached laterally, "on drums" - as is still done today in order to increase the magnitude of electrical phenomena and to study them systematically. This explanation suggests that either serve to any names, but the custom has fixed the distinction.
The fundamental structure of a pile consists of pieces of two different metals are brought into an electrically conductive fluid or electrolyte.

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The digital electronics is a part of electronics that is responsible for electronic systems in which information is encoded in only two states. In such states can be called "true" or "false", or more commonly 1 and 0, referring to an electronic circuit is (1 - true) or no voltage at voltage no voltage (0 - false) . Electronically assigned to each voltage or voltage range given, which are called logical levels, typical of all digital signal. Usually the voltage electronic circuits ranging from 1.5, 3, 5, 9 and 18 volts depending on the application, so for example, in a conventional transistor radio voltage stresses are usually 5 to 12 volts as used in computer hard disks IDE.

difference is that analog electronics to digital electronics voltage value encoding one of two states, while for analog electronics is an infinity of states of information encoded according to the voltage value.

This feature allows using Boolean algebra and binary numbering system, can perform complex arithmetic or logic operations on input signals, very expensive to do using analog methods.

digital electronics has taken on great importance because it is used to automatically and be the cornerstone of microprogrammed systems such as computers or computers.

digital systems can be classified as follows:

• wired systems:

Combinational
• . Sequential
• .
• Memoirs. Converters

scheduled
• Systems:

• Microprocessors.
• Microcontrollers.

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transistor behavior can be viewed as two diodes, one between the base and emitter, which tends to direct another diode between base and collector reverse polarized. This means that entity will have a base and emitter voltages of the direct current of a diode, ie 0.6 to 0.8 V for a silicon transistor and a 0.4 for germanium.

the grace of the device is that the collector will have a current proportional to base current: I _{C = β I} B, ie, current gain when β> 1. Normal transistor signal, β varies between 100 and 300.

Then, there are three amplifier configurations: common emitter

common Issuer

The signal is applied to the base of the transistor and extracted by the collector . The transmitter is connected to the masses of both the signal input and the output. This configuration has both voltage gain power and high input impedance. In case of emitter resistor, R _E > 50 Ω, and for low frequencies, the gain in voltage approximates quite well by the following expression: , and impedance output by R _C

As the base is connected to emitter diode live among them we can assume a constant voltage, V g . We also assume that β is constant. Then we have the emitter voltage is: V _E = V B - V _g

And the emitter current: .

The emitter current is equal to the collector plus the base: . Solving

The output voltage, which is the collector is calculated as:

As β>> 1, can be approximated: and then

can we write as

see that the constant (not dependent on input signal) and gives the signal output. The negative sign indicates that the output signal is offset 180 ° from the input.

Finally, the gain is:

input current, , we approximate by . Assuming

_B V>> V _g , we can write:

and input impedance:

To account for the influence of frequency should be used more sophisticated transistor models. It is very common to use the model in pi. Common Base

Common Base

The signal is applied to the emitter of transistor and extracted by the collector. the base is connected to the masses of both the signal input and the output. In this configuration has only voltage gain. The input impedance is low and the current gain slightly less than one, because part of the emitter current exiting the base. By adding an emitter resistor, which can be your own output impedance of the signal source, a similar analysis made in the common-emitter case, gives the following approximate gain: .

The common ground is often used to bring sources of low-impedance signal output, for example, dynamic microphones.

common collector

common collector

The signal is applied to the base of the transistor and extracted by the issuer. The collector is connected to the masses of both the signal input and the output. In this configuration has current gain but no voltage is slightly lower than unit. This configuration multiplies the output impedance by 1 / β.

The transistor against the thermionic valve

Before the advent of the transistor engineers used active elements called thermionic valves. The valves have electrical characteristics similar to that of field effect transistors (FET): the current that passes depends on the voltage at the terminal command, called grid. The reasons why the transistor replaced the thermionic valve are several:

• The tubes need very voltages high, the order of hundreds of volts, which are lethal to humans.
• Valves energy intensive, which makes them particularly unhelpful for use with batteries.
• Probably one of the most important has been the weight. The chassis needed to house the valves and transformers required for operation amounted to a significant weight, ranging from some tens of kilos kilos.
• The mean time between failures of the thermionic valve is very short compared to transistors, especially because of the heat generated.
• valves have a certain delay in starting work, and they need to be hot to set the driving.
• The transistor is inherently insensitive to microphonic effect, very common in the valves.
• transistors are smaller than the valves, including the nuvistor . Although there is unanimity on this point, it should make an exception: in the case of power devices, they must keep a sink, so the size to be considered is the device (valve or transistor) plus the sink. As the valves can operate at higher temperatures, heat sink efficiency is higher in them than in the transistors, so just a much cooler small.
• working transistors with low impedance, or low voltages and high currents, while the valves have higher impedances and therefore work with low voltage high current.
• Finally, the cost of transistors was not only much lower, but had the promise that he would continue to fall (as actually happened) with sufficient research and development.

As an example of all these drawbacks can be cited to the first digital computer, called ENIAC. It was a team that weighed over thirty tons and consumed 200 kilowatts, enough to power a small city. Was about than 18,000 valves, of which some were burned every day, requiring a major logistics and organization.

When the bipolar transistor was invented in 1947, was considered a revolution. Small, fast, reliable, inexpensive, sober in its energy needs, gradually replaced the thermionic valve during the 1950's, but not quite. In fact, during the years 1960, some manufacturers continued to use equipment thermionic valves in high-end radio, as Collins and Drake, then moved to the valve transistor transmitter but not all of the RF amplifiers. Other manufacturers, audio equipment this time, as Fender continued to use valve amplifiers for guitars. The reasons for the survival of thermionic valves are several:

• The transistor does not have the characteristics of high power linearity of the thermionic valve, so it could not replace the transmission amplifiers professional and amateur radio.
• harmonics introduced by the nonlinearity of the valves are pleasing to the human ear, so they are preferred by audiophiles
• The transistor is very sensitive to electromagnetic effects of nuclear explosions, so they were still used thermionic valves in some control-command systems of Soviet-made fighters.

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Well, we returned to the supernatural mark in this circular impact in this ancestral nest , this spiritual vortex.

What is the point, I tell you, nested in the warm-bound map of my room?
What's the point? Why?, What do you get, What you lose, What do you live?, I'd say nothing.
So I'm just me. Waste emotion, existential apathy, excessive trash. Call a

methane, and to put some passion into this bullshit. Find

to a dog, something to enjoy. I came into this life to that, fuck life, to enjoy the aroma existential.
Let's cut the shit, and feel, damn heartless bureaucrats, whose gray suits can not see the sun rising in the damn door factory anti-sleep. Demoralized existence.

Fortunately, there is good news: people with soul. But it is the least the few, different, exceptional. And I did today for them, I tip my hat. Artists
danger, exorbitant nomads, their ancestral thought I will know the root reason why we are walking on this earth inert. Empty. Dominated by the mediocre shadows of time and fearful of goodness.

The good news, I'll tell you they are few. But when they appear, are enjoying double.
This ended here. And if you do not have hope, look inside, look outside and do what you think is best. There are no magic solutions.

Combat power if you have courage, and if you soft and you just go by the waves of the crowd ... I have bad news for you: you came to this world to die without leaving a bloody footprint on the gray cement.

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